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Tengkolaku
Classification and Dialects Phonology Written forms are given in (parentheses) when they differ from the IPA. Variant pronunciations are indicated by the tilde (~). Consonants Vowels Inherently long vowels are marked with a macron. They represent former aa, ee etc. Native script The native script for Tengkolaku is a somewhat unwieldy abugida. Initial vowels are signed on the symbol for the standalone inherent vowel, . Only a limited number of syllables can exist in the coda. These finals have their own symbols, and are not written with the symbols for the corresponding initials. Phonotactics The maximal syllable in Tengkolaku is CVS, where C is any consonant and S is any of /l m n ŋ s w j/. Nasals followed by a stop assimilate to it: groups like **/mk/ become /ŋk/, while before /b/ and /p/ only /m/ can occur. The groups /ij, ow/, and /uw/ do not occur, but instead resolve into <ī ō ū> respectively. /ʟ̆/, a lateral tap, and /l/ exist in regular variation. Usually /ʟ̆/ occurs word initially, unless the previous word also ended in /l/. /ʟ̆/ also occurs between two vowels. Word finally, and in the syllable coda, the sound becomes /l/. Grammar Ūgu wel, nisambi kel, weledi na Akilēs an yi. sing OPT deity AG anger POSS Achilles PAT TOP "Sing, o Muse, of the wrath of Achilles." The grammar of Tengkolaku is generally held together by means of particles, bound morphemes that define the role of words and phrases. Like the English possessive case or clitic, the particles of Tengkolaku operate on the Queen of England's knickers principle: they modify entire phrases rather than attaching at the word level. Some particles are 'top' particles; these cast the preceding words in a specific grammatical role. In the above sentence, several such function defining particles are in use; wel indicates a verb in the optative mood, while nominals like kel, which indicates that the word it governs is a noun and a do-er; and an, which shows a predicate in the more passive role. Top particles almost always conclude their phrases. Any phrase bound by a top particle is a grammatically independent unit. Words and phrases defined by these 'top' particles are free grammatical elements. The sample sentence has three main clauses. It can be broken down in the following way: (ūgu wel)(nisambi kel)(weledi na Akilēs an yi). Any of these elements may appear in any order without loss of notional content, because each phrase is governed by a top particle that defines its grammatical role: (weledi na Akilēs an yi)(nisambi kel)(ūgu wel) (nisambi kel)(ūgu wel)(weledi na Akilēs an yi) These are the nominals; they make nouns of the preceding phrase. Nominals These particles make nouns of the preceding words or phrases. Agent kel; agent (inanimate) kam These two are used similarly. They specify who in the sentence is the do-er, and an the done-to. In the sentence the muse is being asked to sing; the muse is therefore the active subject. Gender in Tengkolaku is natural rather than semantic, but not quite. All living things, and things that act of their own accord, like the wind, heavenly bodies, clouds, vehicles, and so forth, are all animate. When an inanimate noun phrase is the actor a different particle is used, to call attention to the unusual circumstance. Kel can be used without an an phrase to indicate voluntary activity when the object is irrelevant or understood: Ūgu gau Akilēs kel sing IMPF.BOUND Achilles AG means "Achilles is singing (a song)'. A full translation of 'Achilles is singing a song' would in fact be Ūgu gau Akilēs kel ūgu an. Here ūgu acts as both noun and verb; it is verbed by the verbal particle, and nouned by the next particle: Patient an This marks the predicate to kel and kam's subjects. It also marks the subjects of sentences that are cast in a more passive role. Ngeongo us Eketol an. kill PERF Hector PAT 'Hector was killed.' Subjects requiring an need not be marked with the particle in casual speech; Ngeongo us Eketol. would only be understood as 'Hector was killed'. To say 'Hector kills (somebody, people)' you make Hector an agent; Ngeongo gan Eketol kel. Dative nel This is an uncomplicated dative particle. Eketol kel Peliyam nel kekē an bo us. Hector AG Priam DAT blade PAT give PERF "Hector gave the blade to Priam." Topic yi; non-topic men Unlike the preceding particles, this is not a top particle. This particle is generally free to appear anywhere, and marks focus or points out main or freshly introduced topics and characters. The opening sentence marks the 'anger of Achilles' as a topic. It could be recast as; Ūgu wel, nisambi kel, weledi na Akilēs yi an. Moving the topic marker makes Achilles himself, rather than his anger, the focus. The non topic marker is much less useful. It can be used for rhetorical effects; Onu men ebo, nenebe men ebo, dalkuma pu no lenu yi lusu ebo. clothes NONTOP good, house NONTOP good, tear PAUC POSS.INALIENABLE woman TOP most good. 'While clothes are good, and a house is good, a woman's tears are best.' The non-topic marker is also obligatory when multiple third parties are involved: Emulu mengea an yi utoli eye malo us... Amo sila ēuti ongi kel men li yi an sapengi dekimo us. "A thin horse (TOP) made himself fat. Along the way a thief (NONTOP) caught him (TOP) to ride." Note how when the pronoun li ('he, she, it') comes into play, the topic marker appears to make it clear that the referent is the horse and not the thief. Topic marking is entirely different from being either a subject or a predicate. A topic can stand in relation to a sentence that is neither: Nawngē iki yi, malo uemo gan noytilē do nomengi kel. "This land (TOP), we use manure for fertilizer." Adverbials The "adverbials" of Tengkolaku are all top particles; each of them marks a grammatically sufficient and independent phrase. They handle the tasks that in other languages would be handled by noun cases or prepositional phrases. As such, they typically cast the words they govern into the role of nouns, but the phrases themselves describe the time, place, manner, or circumstances of the actions or states of the topic, the subject, and any other predicates. Some of: lidi Lidi marks a partitive case. It can be used to describe acts involving part of but not all of the people or things it governs: ongi lidi "some of the people"; okuaye lidi "part of the ocean". The resulting phrase can also be made into an agent or patient: Ibusidū gau walobi lidi an, "some of the water was drunk" or "someone drank some of the water". In, on, at: um The inessive case; this marks the habitation or location where its subject can usually be found or is associated with: mūboy ongi emulu beu um, "a messenger on a dark horse". (IB 11) From, out of: ēs The elative case: marks movement away from the governed root: nenebe ēs, "out of the house". This particle also describes the chief constituent of an object, in English, what it is made out of or made from: ikonu pado ēs, "a ring made of gold". (IB 5) Into, towards: win An illative case: this marks movement into the governed word, and similar states such as conversion into: Tengkolaku win tindīgi, "to translate into Tengkolaku". Near, at: lā A general locative marker, 'in, near, or at', broader in meaning than um. Apogel lā gangolangu, "its head is in the grass". (IB 10) From, off of: lita The ablative case particle. This is much more confined in its usage than the Latin ablative case, and depicts movement away: ailepe gau kitil an temba lita, "it pulled its heart out of the hole". (IB 8) Onto, reserved for, to: nel This is the dative particle, also noted as a nominal above. The particle has other, related uses that make it count as an adverbial also: nisambi nel, "devoted to a deity". As, when: nay This indicates use in place of, or playing the role of, the word it governs: munlendu nay "as if in flight". It also indicates the time relevant to an action: idu nogo nay "that morning". (IB 1) Becoming, turning into: ngis This particle indicates the transformation of one thing into another: idemū ngis "turning rotten". Using, by means of, with: do The basic instrumental case. Iki do latiya us gue an, "This way, he avoided death." (IB 13) With, accompanied by: kong This marks a comitative case. It is also used of physical appearances: Kipilta yi nemnugayma moybopi kong nos, "I am a hawk with white spots." (IB 5) Without, deprived of: sem A privative case, identifies things that are absent, lacking, or taken away: diyabul sem, "without money", ēgo sem, "endless". At the time of, when: sila This is a temporal case: it notes specifically the time when or as things happened. Nawngē nenebe om mingea sila, "when he thought about his home country." (IB 16) This is the marker that answers to the purpose of the Latin ablative absolute: pumongumpa sila nos, "when I was a legislator". Like, as: siku This is a comparative case, used to describe something's appearance or action as analogous to another's: kemi siku "magically, like magic". In the manner of, like a: eye Related to the preceding, this identifies things acting or behaving like something else or serving their purpose. It also makes adverbs generally: kiki tu ebo eye, kiki tu mamunu eye. "tie it down well, tie it down firmly." (IB 14) Up to, as far as: yeka This notes the goals or limits of motion: Pegu an yi emulu mengi yeka ngia us, "a lord went to his many horses" (and stopped there) (IB 5); amo nali ia nali te yeka "for a long way, for a long time". About, pertaining to: om A topical case, denoting the subjects of texts or pictures, and the contents of imagery: nawngē nenebe om mingea, "thinking about his home country". (IB 16) Verbals These are stackable; a verbal phrase may have, for example, a tense marker, an aspect marker, and an evidential marker at the same time. Nenebe lango ba, "I hear there used to be a house there." Imperfect gen Bounded imperfect gau Perfect us Distant past lango Past pe Future sili Distant future wang Negation lu Emphatic negation ilul Hypothetical wana Conditional sini Optative wel Hearsay ba Supposition, estimate ke Used to mark estimates of quantity, quality, distance, and the like. Nantedel pileski ke, "the fish seem fresh"; Inglis eye 'mapa ngapulu peo te' sangku dula ngapulu te ke, "in English 'forty-five degrees' is around a hundred and twenty." Experiential sau Possibility, ability yule Goal, purpose po '' Necessity ''oni Permission yudi Sequence, next oye Causative tinde Jussive tu Polite request insala Starting to em Tag question expecting ‘yes’ eya Tag question expecting ‘no’ ina Finishing ilusi Repeating say Result nodo Syntax The syntax of Tengkolaku is basically isolating. Particles, not inflections, govern and bracket the grammatical functions of the roots, and indicate the grammatical functions of the words. Statements without agents or patients It is possible to make meaningful statements in Tengkolaku without either agents or patients. Tense, mood, and aspect need not be specified, either. the unmarked tense in Tengkolaku is called the "gnomic" tense. To claim that the gnomic tense in Tengkolaku expresses 'timeless truths' makes it sound like it's a much bigger deal than it is. Rather, statements unmarked for tense, aspect, or mood are that way because they represent continuous, habitual, and similar statements which need no such specification: * Maung adamu. cat big "The cat is big". Tengkolaku does not need or use a copula. Simple concatenation of two roots can be read as describing one in the context of the other. Deictics can be added: *''Iki maung adamu.'' here cat big "This is a big cat", or, more idiomatic in English, "That's a big cat." *''Iki nenebe.'' here house "Here is the house." Negation may be added: *''Onsa lu gengaki.'' tiger NEG bird "A tiger is not a bird." Adding verbals and adverbials Just about any root in Tengkolaku that will support the ideas expressed in them can have tense, aspect, and mood added to them. While some stems may well seem verb-like and others less so, the lexical words themselves do not have these grammatical categories inherently and may take verbal particles. *''Nenebe us.'' house PERF "It was a house / It used to be a house." *''Iki nenebe us.'' here house PERF "There used to be a house here." *''Iki nenebe wang.'' here house FUT.DIST "Some day there will be a house here." All of the verbals and adverbials are available for use in these kinds of statements. The particles can moreover be stacked, Generally, adverbials follow immediately after the words they govern, while verbals follow them and modify the whole phrases. *''Onsa siku tu!'' tiger LIKE JUSS "Be like a tiger!" *''Iki nenebe wang ba.'' here house FUT.DIST HEARSAY "I hear that some day there's going to be a house here." *''Idemū ngis lango sau.'' rotten TURN PAST.DIST EXPERIENCED "I know it turned rotten long ago." These sorts of sentences can also include the topic marker. If multiple third parties are involved, topic and non-topic marking is still mandatory. The topic marker can also be used to call attention to the most important bits: *''Ilul ngodam tu, oka yi lā.'' NEG.EMPH sleep JUSS snake TOP LOC "Don't fall asleep, there are snakes about." Statements with patients only If a verb phrase in Tengkolaku has one argument, in almost every case the subject of the verb phrase will be a patient. Patients are marked with the particle an. The scope and use of the patient marker is quite broad. Subjects are marked as patients even when their relation to the action in the verb phrase is that of voluntary initiator: *''Enlilna an imemi win ngia gau.'' queen PAT city TOWARDS go IMP.BND "The queen went towards the city." Tengkolaku does not, strictly speaking, have a passive voice. Rather, if a word with potential transitive meaning appears in a phrase with only a patient, the English passive voice can be used to translate the resulting sentence: *''Kondili us nenebe an.'' build PERF house PAT can be rendered in English as either "A house was built" or "Someone built a house." Specifying an agent in sentences like these are one of the few situations where a personal pronoun is required by the grammar: *''Kondili us nenebe an nos kel.'' build PERF house PAT 1p AG is the only entirely unambiguous way to say that "I built the house," claiming personal credit for its construction. Etiquette, not grammar, prefers the construction: *''Kondili us nenebe an iki kel.'' build PERF house PAT HERE AG using the word iki, "here", instead of the first person pronoun, which is considered rather abrupt in tone. Lexicon The current lexicon of Tengkolaku can be read here. Example text John 3:16 Tiwi Alaku kel lē an adamu mibi us, bo us Peni yi an, impa gang ile an, mingea kel Li an, lu gue nodo, site lotanu ēgo sem an dabi wang. Since God AG world PAT large love PERF gave PERF son TOP PAT one times born PAT believe AG Him PAT not die ever but alive end without PAT hold FUT.DISTANT